DOI: 10.32609/j.ruje.11.145396

Authors: Nataliia Vlasova, Ahmed Alwadeai

Abstract: This study investigates the multifaceted relationship between international sanctions and economic freedom, treating it not simply as an economic construct but as a fundamental pillar of societal well-being. Drawing upon a panel dataset of 21 countries subjected to sanctions between 2002 and 2022, we analyze the impact of sanctions — both economic and non-economic — on overall and component-level economic freedom. Methodologically, we integrate Panel-Corrected Standard Errors, Feasible Generalized Least Squares, and Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling, thereby addressing issues such as heteroskedasticity, autocorrelation, and the complexity of multiple interdependent relationships. Our findings reveal a consistent negative effect of sanctions on economic freedom, although the severity and channels of impact vary according to the nature and source of the sanctions, as well as the institutional and temporal contexts. Notably, sanctions imposed by the United Nations emerge as particularly constraining for property rights and monetary freedom, while trade and financial restrictions curtail investment and market openness. At the same time, sanctioned states demonstrate varying degrees of resilience, adapting policies and seeking alternative markets to mitigate sanctions. These outcomes underline the dual nature of sanctions as powerful tools of international diplomacy that can inadvertently undermine economic freedom. By illuminating these dynamics, our study offers insights for policymakers and scholars alike, emphasizing the importance of tailoring sanctions to limit harm to economic liberties while pursuing legitimate foreign policy objectives.

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DOI: 10.32609/j.ruje.11.144072

Authors: Nikolay A. Gorodnyi, Anna A. Fedyunina, Yuri V. Simachev

Abstract: This study investigates the impact of pricing and export diversification on the resilience of Russian manufacturing firms within global value chains (GVCs) during two consecutive shocks: the COVID-19 pandemic and the sanctions of 2022. The research examines how pricing affects firms’ ability to sustain exports in times of crisis and analyzes the role of product and geographic diversification in mitigating disruptions. The findings reveal that market-controlled pricing and export diversification significantly enhance GVC resilience, enabling firms to adapt to disrupted supply chains and shifting market conditions. In contrast, rigid pricing controls, including government interventions, undermine export continuity. Single-product firms demonstrate less resilience to external shocks, highlighting the importance of export diversification in enhancing adaptability within GVCs. This study points out the critical role of flexibility and adaptability in pricing and export diversification for navigating external shocks. It provides useful insights for managers and policymakers, emphasizing the balance between resilience and efficiency in maintaining competitiveness. The results contribute to a broader understanding of GVC resilience, with implications for firms in other emerging economies facing similar challenges.

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DOI: 10.32609/j.ruje.10.125317

Authors: Maribel Aponte-Garcia

Abstract: In response to international sanctions, Russia has restructured its hydrocarbon commerce through trade deflection, redirecting exports from sanctioning to non-sanctioning countries. The research aimed to analyze hydrocarbon trade deflection under the Russia–Ukraine conflict within the context of the China–Russia Strategic Partnership and BRICS, and to assess the restructuring of Russia’s crude oil and natural gas supply chains from 2020 to 2023. Two questions were addressed: Whether trade deflection shifted towards non-sanctioning countries, including China and other BRICS countries; whether Russia’s oil and gas supply chains were restructured towards these regions? Design incorporates the method developed by the author which generates and utilizes an integrated database of Bill of Lading and export data to analyze supply-chain trade restructuring, identifying specific shifts in trade flows by product, country, and enterprises. Findings reflected that after sanctions were imposed in early 2022, Russian hydrocarbon exports to sanctioning countries declined sharply, while exports to non-sanctioning countries, particularly China and India, increased significantly. Findings demonstrate the effectiveness of trade deflection as a strategic response to sanctions. This strategy has mitigated the adverse impacts on Russian oil and gas industry, with significant increases in exports to China and India. The Comprehensive Strategic Partnership with China has helped secure a substantial market for Russian crude oil and increased China’s energy security. This study enhances understanding of trade deflection mechanisms and provides a framework for analyzing the interplay between international trade, geopolitical strategies, and economic resilience. Geopolitical alliances and trade partnerships have ensured resilience and continuity in global trade. This shift indicates strategic diversification towards Asian markets and increased Central Asian involvement. BRICS engagement has provided Russia with a platform to advocate for energy security and challenge Western dominance in global energy governance. Future research should explore other supply-chain components and analyze trade within the BRICS+ group and Russia–China bilateral trade.

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DOI: 10.32609/j.ruje.8.84097

Authors: Han-Sol Lee, Alexander M. Zobov, Ekaterina A. Degtereva

Abstract: Employing an intercountry trade force (ITF) theory, this paper investigates bilate­ral trade between South Korea and 28 economies of Central Eastern Europe (CEE) and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) based on balanced panel data for the period from 2011 to 2019. Free trade space (FTS) and gravity index (GI) turned out statistically significant and their coefficient signs are in line with the research hypothesis. Our model also confirms that bilateral trade volumes­ are highly enhanced by the quality institutions of CEE and CIS countries. The impact of their good governance becomes larger in relation to South Korea’s exports to those count­ries. A level of market openness (measured by FDI ratio and WTO membership) does not facilitate bilateral trade volumes, in general. However, WTO membership turns out to be a significant and positive factor in promoting CEE and CIS countries’ exports to South Korea. Therefore South Korea must strive to enhance the institutional quality of CEE and CIS countries to ease the process of customs clearance and the conclusion and enforcement of trade contracts, and reduce transaction costs. Liberalizing economies based on internationally acknowledged economic principles will continue to enhance CEE and CIS countries’ exports to South Korea.

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DOI: 10.32609/j.ruje.7.75423

Authors: Ivan L. Lyubimov

Abstract: Economic complexity theory deepens our understanding of export diversification. However, it relies on aggregated data which might disguise important details. In particular, these data do not take information on importers into account even though this information can provide new insights about the pace of economic complexity evolution in a particular economy. The paper introduces these new insights by incorporating more detailed export data into analysis. I find that wealthier economies not only tend to export more sophisticated products, but also sell them to richer destinations. I discuss the case of Russia which seeks to become a more complex economy and gain technological ­sovereignty by implementing reindustrialization policy. However, Russian complex products rarely conquer richer markets and are better known to Russia’s geographic neighbors. Our findings suggest that such a pattern of reindustrialization might not be promising as long as a higher level of wealth is a concern. The paper claims that even though redesigning industrial policy such that it becomes more conditioned on export outcomes is not a solution to the problem, it is, however, one of its important ingredients.

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DOI: 10.32609/j.ruje.7.57933

Authors: Irina Tarasenko

Abstract: This paper analyzes the effects of exchange rate volatility on exports and imports of a range of goods between Russia and its 70 trading partners from 2004 until 2018. The goods in question fall into eight product categories, as follows: (i) agricultural raw materials­; (ii) chemicals; (iii) food; (iv) fuels; (v) manufactured goods; (vi) ores and metals­; (vii) textiles; and (viii) machinery and transport equipment. Exchange rate volatility­ is measured using the standard deviation of the first difference in the logarithmic daily nominal exchange rate. The paper concludes that exchange rate volatility had a negative impact on exports of agricultural raw materials, manufactured goods, and machinery and transport equipment. In contrast, it was found to have a positive and significant impact on trade in fuels and imports of chemicals and textiles.

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DOI: 10.32609/j.ruje.5.34753

Authors: Ivan Lyubimov

Abstract: The Russian economy heavily relies on exports of its natural resources. However, the resource-based status quo does not seem to be the route towards Russia’s long-run prosperity. To improve its position in the global income ranking, Russia needs to diversify its exports and make them more complex. Using highly detailed data on trade flows and applying network theory apparatus, we evaluate the level of export complexity in Russia from 1995 to 2016 and compare it with that of its BRICS fellow members. We find that Russia is stagnant with respects to its relative level of export complexity. This sluggishness embraced the entire period between 1995 and 2016, much longer than the stage of anemic growth that started there a decade ago. We also conclude that the current stock of know-how in Russia is relatively low and fragmented, thus not letting Russia diversify into a broad range of more complex products. Russia might also need to export a wider variety of products to richer economies. Today, on a par with Brazil and South Africa, it supplies a broader range of goods to its slowly growing next-door neighbors.

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DOI: 10.32609/j.ruje.5.38706

Authors: Anna Fedyunina, Yuliya Averyanova

Abstract: The paper explores the relationship between the import of semi-finished products and means of production and the export of high-tech products in Russian manufacturing companies. The key question of the research is whether the export of high-tech products is connected with the import of complex components and semi-finished products. The study confirms that the export of high-tech products is determined by the import of high-tech semi-finished products for the export-intensive Russian manufacturing companies. The research does not find any relationship between the import of equipment and means of production and the export of high-tech products. This has important implications for Russia’s structural policy aimed at expanding exports of high-tech products. First, introducing protectionist measures in relation to the import of foreign components should take place gradually to allow companies to adapt to the new conditions. Secondly, they should proceed selectively in order to allow access of Russian exporters to critical components and means of production that have no Russian counterparts.

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