Research Article |
Corresponding author: Shweta Sikhwal ( shwetasikhwal8181@gmail.com ) © 2024 Non-profit partnership “Voprosy Ekonomiki”.
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0), which permits to copy and distribute the article for non-commercial purposes, provided that the article is not altered or modified and the original author and source are credited.
Citation:
Sikhwal S (2024) Quantifying the spillover effects of U.S. economic policy uncertainty on emerging market economies using GMM-PVAR model. Russian Journal of Economics 10(3): 229-245. https://doi.org/10.32609/j.ruje.10.128666
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This paper quantifies the spillover effects of economic policy uncertainty (EPU) in the United States on emerging market economies (EMEs). Using a generalized method of moments (GMM) estimation of a panel vector autoregression (PVAR) model on a dataset of 39 EMEs from 2005 to 2019, we find that increased U.S. EPU significantly raises the consumer price index (CPI) and negatively impacts the real GDP of these economies. Additionally, heightened U.S. EPU leads to a depreciation of emerging market currencies and a reduction in short-term interest rates. We employ a news-based EPU index developed by Baker et al. (2016) and conduct robustness checks using forward orthogonal transformation, an alternative EPU index, and by addressing the potential endogeneity of the oil price uncertainty (OPU) index. Our findings highlight the adverse effects of U.S. economic policy uncertainty on key macroeconomic variables in emerging markets, underscoring the importance of stable economic policies and robust institutions to mitigate these impacts.
economic policy uncertainty, GMM-PVAR, spillover effects, emerging markets
Uncertainty is widely recognized for its adverse effects on economic activity. Since the global financial crisis (GFC), global economic uncertainties have significantly risen, impacting both advanced and emerging markets. The adoption of unconventional monetary policies by the U.S. has particularly affected emerging markets, which are already characterized by inherent instabilities.
Economic literature identifies uncertainty as a factor that exacerbates economic contractions and delays recoveries (
The COVID-19 pandemic further elevated uncertainty to unprecedented levels, prompting economic agents to defer crucial decisions. This heightened uncertainty motivates individuals to postpone choices, anticipating more precise information, which diminishes their responsiveness to interest rate fluctuations. These concerns underscore the necessity for policymakers to adopt assertive measures to stabilize the economy during macroeconomic crises.
Emerging markets, often characterized by pre-existing instabilities, are particularly susceptible to external shocks from economic policy uncertainty (EPU) generated in the U.S. These markets face unique challenges in their pursuit of stability, growth, and inflation control, exacerbated by uncertain economic policies in major economies like the U.S. Understanding the nature and magnitude of U.S. EPU spillovers is crucial for effective policy formulation in these regions. A growing body of literature examines the international spillovers of uncertainty (Berger et al., 2017;
This study employs a generalized method of moments (GMM) extension of the panel vector autoregression (PVAR) model. The GMM-PVAR approach is particularly suitable for understanding dynamic spillover effects, as it effectively addresses endogeneity issues and captures interdependencies among variables over time. By using a news-based proxy of uncertainty (Baker et al., 2016), this research provides new insights into the transmission mechanisms of U.S. EPU and its impact on emerging markets. The robustness of the findings is ensured through various checks, including forward orthogonal difference transformation, alternative measures of U.S. EPU, and addressing the potential endogeneity of the oil price uncertainty (OPU) index by treating both U.S. EPU and OPU as predetermined variables.
The paper is structured as follows: Section 2 reviews relevant literature on EPU and its spillover effects. Section 3 describes the data and methodology. Section 4 presents the GMM-PVAR analysis results, and Section 5 discusses the robustness of these findings. Finally, Section 6 concludes the paper.
Economic uncertainty has long been recognized as a significant factor influencing economic activity, prompting economic agents to postpone decisions until more accurate information becomes available. Research by
Focusing on the United States, several studies demonstrate that elevated EPU dampens investment, output, and employment (Baker et al., 2016; Bachmann et al., 2013). Caggiano et al. (2017) utilize a nonlinear Interacted VAR (IVAR) model to show that the contractionary effects of uncertainty are amplified when monetary policy is constrained by the zero lower bound. Further, Aastveit et al. (2013) and
In the euro area and Canada, research by
The literature identifies several channels through which uncertainty affects economic activity. The “wait-and-see” effect suggests that under high uncertainty, firms and households delay investment and consumption decisions, thereby reducing output (
Research on international spillovers of uncertainty has predominantly focused on individual countries or small groups of economies.
The response to external shocks is significantly influenced by trade and financial openness, as well as the quality of institutions. Trade openness can increase an economy’s vulnerability to external shocks due to its reliance on exports, but it can also promote risk diversification (Calderón and Schmidt-Hebbel, 2008;
Despite the extensive research on the impacts of EPU, most studies focus on developed economies or small groups of countries. Comprehensive studies examining the spillover effects of U.S. EPU on a large panel of emerging markets are limited. Furthermore, previous research often fails to adequately address the dynamic interactions and endogeneity issues inherent in such analyses. This study addresses these gaps by employing a robust GMM-based PVAR model, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the spillover effects across a diverse set of emerging economies.
This study uses a comprehensive panel dataset comprising 39 emerging market economies over the period from 2005 to 2019 (a list of countries incorporated in the model is provided in Appendix A). The chosen timeframe captures the effects of EPU during significant global economic events, including the GFC. The key economic indicators included in our analysis are real gross domestic product (GDP), consumer price index (CPI), short-term interest rates, and nominal effective exchange rate (NEER). To capture the impact of uncertainties, we incorporate the U.S. EPU index and the oil price uncertainty (OPU) index. The interest rates are expressed as percentages, while other variables are presented in their natural logarithmic form to ensure consistency in variance and a normalized distribution. The economic data is sourced from the International Financial Statistics of the International Monetary Fund, and the uncertainty indices are retrieved from economicpolicyuncertainty.com.
The U.S. EPU index, developed by Baker et al. (2016), is based on a daily count of newspaper articles from the NewsBank Access World News service that mention terms related to the economy, uncertainty, and policy actions. This index captures a wide array of publications, ranging from national to regional newspapers. To account for the growing number of newspapers over time — from 18 in 1985 to more than 1800 by 2008 — a normalization procedure is applied. This standardizes the daily counts of EPU-related articles against the total number of articles published, ensuring the index reflects relative changes in uncertainty rather than absolute increases in news volume. This news-based measure is preferred for its broad reflection of public perception, as newspapers serve as a mirror to the educated populace involved in business decision-making, offering a comprehensive view of economic uncertainty.
The OPU index, incorporated in our analysis, follows the methodology outlined by Baker et al. (2016) and operationalized by
3.2.1. Preliminary analysis
Before estimating our model, we conduct stationarity tests to ensure that our panel data does not contain unit roots, which could lead to spurious regression results. Specifically, we use the Augmented Dickey–Fuller (ADF) Fisher test and the Im, Pesaran, and Shin (IPS) test, incorporating trends to account for deterministic components in the data. The ADF Fisher test combines individual ADF tests applied to each cross-section unit, aggregating the p-values from these individual tests into a single test statistic. This approach allows us to assess the overall stationarity of the panel dataset. The IPS test allows for heterogeneity in the autoregressive root across cross-sections. It provides a Z-t-tilde-bar statistic that adjusts for cross-sectional dependence and aggregates the unit root tests of individual time series. Both tests help us confirm that our data series are stationary, ensuring the validity of our subsequent econometric analysis.
We employ a PVAR model integrated with the GMM approach to analyze the dynamic interactions among multiple endogenous variables while addressing potential endogeneity issues. The PVAR model, extending the vector autoregressive panel model proposed by Holtz-Eakin et al. (1988) and further developed by
(1)
where yi,t represents the m × 1 vector of endogenous variables for the ith cross-sectional unit at time t, with lagged endogenous variables yi,t–1, a k × 1 vector of predetermined variables xi,t, and an n × 1 vector of strictly exogenous variables si,t; ϵi,t is assumed to be independently and identically distributed for all i and t.
To estimate this model, we utilize the first difference GMM estimator, which is particularly suitable for handling the potential endogeneity of the regressors and the dynamic nature of the panel data. The first difference GMM estimator, as proposed by
(2)
where ∆* signifies the first difference or forward orthogonal transformation, enabling the utilization of lagged levels of endogenous variables as instruments for GMM estimation. This transformation helps mitigate any bias arising from time-invariant unobserved heterogeneity. The first difference transformation subtracts the value of a variable at time t – 1 from its value at time t, effectively removing time-invariant individual effects and mitigating any bias arising from unobserved heterogeneity.
Alternatively, the forward orthogonal deviation transformation can be used, which is defined as:
(3)
This transformation subtracts the average of all future observations of a variable from its current value. Unlike the first difference transformation, the forward orthogonal transformation preserves more information by minimizing data loss due to differencing and can be particularly advantageous when dealing with unbalanced panels. Both transformations serve to eliminate fixed effects but differ in their approach to handling the data.
In our GMM framework, we use lagged values of the endogenous variables and strictly exogenous variables as instruments. These instruments help address the endogeneity problem by providing valid instruments that are correlated with the endogenous regressors but uncorrelated with the error term. Our model includes the natural logarithms of U.S. EPU, GDP, CPI, NEER, and short-term interest rates in percentage form as endogenous variables. The natural logarithm of OPU is treated as a strictly exogenous variable.
Including U.S. EPU in the vector of endogenous variables allows us to capture the dynamic interactions and feedback mechanisms between EPU and the macroeconomic variables in emerging markets. This is particularly important for generating impulse response functions (IRFs), which trace the effects of a one-time shock to one of the endogenous variables on the future values of all endogenous variables in the model. By treating U.S. EPU as endogenous, we can accurately assess how shocks to EPU propagate through the system and affect GDP, CPI, NEER, and interest rates in emerging markets over time. The rationale for treating OPU as a strictly exogenous variable is based on the assumption that while OPU can influence the macroeconomic environment, it is not contemporaneously affected by the economic conditions in the emerging markets within the model’s timeframe. This assumption simplifies the model and allows us to isolate the effects of external oil price shocks on the endogenous variables.
Given the specific characteristics of our dataset, with 39 cross-sectional units (N = 39) and 15 time periods (T = 15), we opted for the one-step GMM estimator. This choice was made because the two-step GMM estimator did not satisfy the stability conditions for our data, leading to unreliable estimates. The one-step estimator uses a consistent initial weighting matrix to estimate the PVAR model coefficients, ensuring robustness and compliance with the necessary stability conditions. The two-step GMM estimator, while theoretically more efficient, produced unstable results, which could lead to biased or inconsistent estimates. The one-step GMM estimator, by contrast, offers better finite sample properties and robustness against overfitting, providing more reliable and consistent results. Given these considerations, the one-step GMM estimator is the more appropriate choice for our analysis.
To ensure the validity and robustness of our model, we perform several specification tests. The Hansen over-identification test is used to validate the instruments employed in the GMM estimation. This test assesses whether the instruments are valid by checking if they are uncorrelated with the error terms and correctly specified. Additionally, we use the model selection criteria proposed by
For structural analysis, we estimate orthogonal and generalized impulse response functions (GIRFs) to analyze the dynamic effects of shocks to the endogenous variables. IRFs are used to assess how a shock to one variable propagates through the system, affecting other variables over time. In the context of the PVAR model, IRFs explain the dynamic responses of all endogenous variables to unit shocks in any variable within the system, offering insights into the transient and long-term impacts of such perturbations. The IRF is mathematically stated as:
(4)
where k represents the time period after the shock; r the component of the shock, and er is a vector with 1 in the rth column and 0 elsewhere. This formulation allows for the analysis of how shocks to the rth component of ϵi,t propagate through the system over time.
Standard IRFs typically assume orthogonal shocks, applying the Cholesky decomposition to the covariance matrix of reduced-form errors. Consequently, the IRFs are influenced by the variable ordering, which is often guided by economic theory. However, there is no definitive empirical method for identifying uncertainty shocks in the existing literature (
We employ bootstrap methods, as suggested by
4.1.1. Descriptive statistics
The descriptive statistics for the sampled emerging economies are presented in Table
To ensure the reliability of our PVAR model, we conducted unit root tests using the IPS test and the ADF Fisher test. The results, shown in Table
Determining the optimal lag length is crucial for accurately capturing the dynamics and interdependencies among the endogenous variables in a PVAR model. The choice of lag length affects the model’s ability to reflect both contemporaneous and lagged influences. We used several lag-selection criteria based on the moment selection criteria (MMSC): the modified bayesian information criterion (MBIC), the modified Akaike information criterion (MAIC), and the modified Hannan–Quinn information criterion (MQIC). These criteria, developed by
For the PVAR model’s estimation to be reliable, it must satisfy the stability criterion, ensuring that the system’s dynamics do not exhibit explosive behavior over time. This criterion requires that all eigenvalues of the model’s companion matrix have moduli less than one. Our stability assessment, presented in Table
The GMM-PVAR coefficients, estimated using the first difference transformation, are derived by using moment conditions that exploit the time series and cross-sectional dimensions of panel data. This approach helps address endogeneity and serial correlation issues, ensuring consistent and efficient parameter estimation within the PVAR model. These coefficients describe the relationships between the current values of the endogenous variables in the system and their own past values, as well as the past values of other endogenous variables. By using lagged values as instruments, the GMM estimation controls for endogeneity and omitted variable bias. The detailed estimated results are presented in Table
We now turn to quantify the effects of U.S. EPU on EMEs. Our study focuses on the spillover effects of U.S. EPU on key macroeconomic variables in EMEs, interpreting the estimated coefficients to understand these relationships.
The GMM-PVAR estimates confirm a significant and negative effect of U.S. EPU on the real GDP of EMEs. Specifically, a 1% increase in the previous period’s EPU is associated with a 0.0210% decrease in GDP. This finding can be explained by the “wait-and-see” effect channel, as discussed in the literature (Baker et al., 2016;
Additionally, a 1% increase in the previous period’s EPU is associated with a 0.0194% increase in the CPI. This rise in the price index can be attributed to the increased cost of imported raw materials, driven by currency depreciation. As the domestic currency loses value, the cost of imports rises, leading to higher prices for goods and services.
Our results also show that a 1% increase in the previous period’s EPU is correlated with a 0.0412% decrease in the interest rate. This suggests that policy uncertainty can prompt central banks to lower interest rates as part of an effort to stimulate the economy amidst heightened uncertainty. Central banks might reduce rates to counteract the negative impacts of uncertainty on economic activity. Furthermore, higher uncertainty can lead to a flight to safety among investors, increasing demand for bonds and thus lowering yields.
Lastly, a 1% increase in the previous period’s EPU is linked with a 0.0879% depreciation of emerging-market currencies. Increased uncertainty may deter foreign investment, resulting in capital outflows and a subsequent depreciation of the domestic currency. Additionally, lower interest rates can make the currency less attractive to foreign investors, further contributing to its depreciation.
We now examine the spillover effects of U.S. EPU shocks on the EMEs. We analyze the responses of EMEs to a one standard error positive shock to U.S. EPU. IRFs are employed to analyze the dynamic effects of a one-time shock to one of the endogenous variables on the current and future values of all endogenous variables within the PVAR system. These IRFs trace the expected values of the variables over time following the shock, providing a temporal dimension that illustrates how shocks dissipate or amplify across the system. Unlike static GMM-PVAR coefficients, IRFs offer insights into the dynamic adjustment paths of the variables. For generating the GIRFs, we bootstrapped the confidence bands with 1000 draws to ensure robust inference.
Fig.
The spillover effects of U.S. EPU shocks on the emerging market economies. Note: The median estimates are presented by solid lines and the bootstrapped 95% confidence bands are presented by the shaded areas. The horizontal axis represents the time steps (in years) following the shocks, and the vertical axis represents the responses to the shocks in terms of percentage changes. Source: Compiled by the author.
The NEER shows a decline, indicating that the currencies of EMEs depreciate in response to a positive U.S. EPU shock. This depreciation can be linked to the same flight-to-safety behavior where increased risk aversion among investors leads to capital outflows from EMEs to safer assets, typically denominated in U.S. dollars.
Short-term interest rates also decline following a positive U.S. EPU shock. Central banks in EMEs may respond to increased uncertainty by lowering interest rates to stimulate investment and stabilize their economies. Lower interest rates can help offset the negative impact of uncertainty on economic activity by encouraging borrowing and investment.
The response of GDP to a U.S. EPU shock is initially positive, but it subsequently declines. This initial positive impact might reflect short-term stabilizing policies or temporary boosts in confidence. However, as uncertainty persists, the negative effects on investment and consumption dominate, leading to a decline in output. The reduction in GDP over time underlines the adverse long-term effects of heightened U.S. EPU on economic growth in EMEs.
In our first robustness check, we employ the forward orthogonal transformation, an alternative to the first difference transformation used in our main analysis. This method preserves the orthogonality of the error terms while accounting for changes in one period affecting future periods. The forward orthogonal transformation minimizes data loss and handles unbalanced panels more effectively compared to the first difference transformation.
In Table
To further assess the robustness of our findings, we examine the impact of U.S. EPU on emerging markets using an alternative version of the U.S. EPU index. While our main analysis utilized the news-based EPU index developed by Baker et al. (2016), this robustness check employs a three-component-based EPU index by the same authors. This index combines information from three distinct sources: news coverage, tax code provisions, and disagreement among economic forecasters, offering a more comprehensive measure of EPU.
We conduct this robustness check following the same methodology as our main model, determining the optimal lag length using the MBIC criterion to ensure comparability. The results of the GMM-PVAR estimation, presented in Table
To address the potential endogeneity of the oil price uncertainty (OPU) index, we conduct a robustness check by treating both U.S. EPU and OPU as predetermined variables. Predetermined variables are considered weakly exogenous, meaning that they may correlate with past errors but not with contemporaneous ones.
By re-specifying the model in this way, we aim to capture any feedback effects between U.S. EPU and OPU, ensuring consistent and reliable estimates. This approach accounts for the possibility that changes in U.S. EPU influence OPU, which in turn might affect the macroeconomic variables in our study.
The results of these robustness checks confirm that our main findings remain stable and consistent. The impact of U.S. EPU on CPI, GDP, interest rates, and NEER remains robust, even when accounting for potential feedback effects between U.S. EPU and OPU. The stability condition of the model is satisfied, as all eigenvalues lie within the unit circle.
The robustness check results, as presented in Table
In this paper, we investigated the spillover effects of U.S. EPU on the macroeconomic variables of emerging markets. Utilizing a GMM estimation of the PVAR model, we quantified the impact of U.S. EPU on domestic macroeconomic variables such as GDP, CPI, interest rates, and NEER, while treating the OPU index as a strictly exogenous variable.
Our findings reveal a statistically significant negative impact of U.S. EPU on the GDP of emerging markets, highlighting a “wait-and-see” effect among investors and businesses. This uncertainty leads to delayed decisions on investment and spending, thereby dampening economic growth. Moreover, we observe an inflationary effect, likely due to the increased costs of importing raw materials in uncertain policy environments. Additionally, the results indicate that U.S. EPU leads to a decline in short-term interest rates and a depreciation of emerging market currencies against the U.S. dollar.
To ensure the robustness of our findings, we performed additional analyses using the forward orthogonal transformation and an alternative version of the U.S. EPU index. Furthermore, we addressed potential endogeneity issues by treating both U.S. EPU and OPU as predetermined variables. This approach helps to mitigate the risk of inconsistent estimates. The consistency of results across these robustness checks reinforces the reliability of our main conclusions.
Given the observed decline in GDP due to U.S. EPU and its association with the “wait-and-see” effect, it is crucial for emerging markets to enhance the stability of their economies. This stability is essential for maintaining resilient international capital flows during periods of heightened uncertainty. Emerging markets should invest significantly in improving the quality of their institutions. Key areas for enhancement include political stability, transparency, macroeconomic policy management, accountability, and regulatory efficiency.
Strengthening these aspects of governance and policy-making can help stabilize international capital flows and mitigate the adverse effects of U.S. EPU shocks on emerging markets. By fostering a stable and transparent economic environment, emerging markets can better withstand the challenges posed by external economic uncertainties and sustain long-term economic growth.
This article was prepared within the framework of the HSE University Basic Research Program. I would like to express my gratitude to my PhD supervisor, Marek Dabrowski and Svetlana Avdasheva for the consistent support and direction they have provided.
Albania Algeria Azerbaijan Bosnia and Herzegovina Brazil Bulgaria Chile China Colombia Egypt Georgia Hungary India Indonesia Jamaica Jordan Kuwait Malaysia Maldives Mauritius | Mexico Mongolia Montenegro Oman Pakistan Paraguay Peru Philippines Qatar Romania Russia Samoa Seychelles South Africa Sri Lanka Thailand Trinidad and Tobago Ukraine Uruguay |
Variable | Mean | Max | Min | St. dev. | Skewness | Kurtosis |
GDP | 14.273 | 23.117 | 7.404 | 3.502 | 0.123 | 2.439 |
CPI | 4.664 | 5.665 | 3.936 | 0.251 | 0.236 | 4.376 |
Interest rate | 0.058 | 0.547 | –0.201 | 0.089 | 1.596 | 8.766 |
Exchange rate | 2.895 | 9.564 | –1.314 | 2.555 | 0.673 | 2.936 |
US EPU | 4.808 | 5.240 | 4.207 | 0.306 | –0.793 | 2.335 |
OPU | 4.796 | 5.495 | 4.321 | 0.340 | 0.378 | 2.166 |
Variable | Im-Pesaran-Shin | ADF | ||||||||||
Levels | First differences | Levels | First differences | |||||||||
value | p-value | value | p-value | value | p-value | value | p-value | |||||
GDP | –1.271 | 0.102 | –8.203 | 0.000 | –0.181 | 0.428 | –7.734 | 0.000 | ||||
CPI | 0.544 | 0.707 | –8.872 | 0.000 | 3.493 | 0.999 | –8.983 | 0.000 | ||||
Interest rate | –9.136 | 0.000 | –12.491 | 0.000 | –10.090 | 0.000 | –21.443 | 0.000 | ||||
Exchange rate | –3.869 | 0.001 | –8.981 | 0.000 | 2.263 | 0.988 | –7.447 | 0.000 | ||||
US EPU | –3.647 | 0.001 | –9.624 | 0.000 | 2.461 | 0.993 | –9.041 | 0.000 | ||||
OPU | –11.544 | 0.000 | –12.373 | 0.000 | –14.018 | 0.000 | –17.825 | 0.000 |
MBIC | –14135.73 |
MAIC | –4529.081 |
MQIC | –8712.912 |
Eigen value | Modulus | |
(1) | 0.94030982 + 0.00000000i | 0.94030982 |
(2) | 0.81571710 + 0.1600308i | 0.83126665 |
(3) | 0.81571710 – 0.1600308i | 0.83126665 |
(4) | 0.74580474 + 0.0000000i | 0.74580474 |
(5) | –0.04475121 + 0.0000000i | 0.04475121 |
lnUSEPU | lnCPI | lnGDP | R | lnER | |
lnUSEPU (1) | 0.8995*** | 0.0194* | –0.0210*** | –0.0412* | –0.0879*** |
lnCPI (1) | –0.4511*** | 0.8744*** | –0.0194 | 0.2193*** | 0.3150*** |
lnGDP (1) | 0.5854*** | 0.0554* | 0.9242*** | –0.0675 | 0.1073 |
R (1) | 0.2717*** | –0.0134 | –0.0187 | –0.0574 | –0.0450 |
lnER (1) | 0.5985*** | 0.0657*** | 0.0467** | –0.1682** | 0.6322*** |
lnOPU | 0.4034*** | 0.0371*** | –0.0088* | –0.0180 | 0.0098 |
lnUSEPU | lnCPI | lnGDP | R | lnER | |
lnUSEPU (1) | 0.8732*** | 0.0231* | –0.0241*** | –0.0349* | –0.0666*** |
lnCPI (1) | –0.3356*** | 0.8788*** | –0.0106 | 0.1840*** | 0.2657*** |
lnGDP (1) | 0.5213*** | 0.0350 | 0.9233*** | –0.0403 | 0.0958 |
R (1) | 0.2591*** | –0.0147 | –0.0213 | –0.0487 | –0.0417 |
lnER (1) | 0.4831*** | 0.0762*** | 0.0334* | –0.1401** | 0.7053*** |
lnOPU | 0.3889*** | 0.0380*** | –0.0106* | –0.0141 | 0.0173 |
lnUSEPU | lnCPI | lnGDP | R | lnER | |
lnUSEPU (1) | 0.9755*** | 0.0173 | –0.0070 | –0.0466** | –0.1038*** |
lnCPI (1) | –0.4539*** | 0.8715*** | –0.0346 | 0.2407*** | 0.3674*** |
lnGDP (1) | 0.4476*** | 0.0659* | 0.9204*** | –0.0962* | 0.0428 |
R (1) | –0.0253 | –0.0193 | –0.0089 | –0.0477 | –0.0256 |
lnER (1) | 0.5369*** | 0.0714*** | 0.0592*** | –0.1958** | 0.5667*** |
lnOPU | 0.4160*** | 0.0360*** | –0.0030 | –0.0194* | 0.0052 |
lnCPI | lnGDP | R | lnER | |
lnCPI (1) | 0.8770*** | –0.031 | 0.2052*** | 0.2720*** |
lnGDP (1) | 0.0489* | 0.9207*** | –0.0655 | 0.0913 |
R (1) | –0.0175 | –0.011 | –0.0445 | –0.0126 |
lnER (1) | 0.0703*** | 0.0577*** | –0.1626** | 0.6732*** |
lnOPU | 0.0276*** | 0.0001 | 0.0006 | 0.0470*** |
lnUSEPU | 0.0222*** | –0.0128* | –0.0356** | –0.0631*** |