"Key issues of reforms";"Regions / countries";"Time periods";Research
"Dominance of large companies, vertical integration, discrimination against new entrants, risks of remonopolization (incumbents’ advantages, entry barriers, formal liberalization)";"EU, North and Latin America, Asia, other countries";2000s–2020s;"Ellig (2002), Pittman (2004, 2005), Bouf et al. (2005), Cantos et al. (2012), Laabsch and Sanner (2012), Ozkan et al. (2016a), Huang et al. (2019), Kuriakose and Gupta (2021), Solina and Abramović (2022)"
"Coordination loss after vertical separation and rising transaction costs (functional unbundling, interface cost increases, role of duplication, operational friction)";"North America, EU, UK, Asia, other countries";1990s–2020s;"Pittman (2004, 2005), Bouf et al. (2005), Cantos Sánchez et al. (2008), Wetzel (2008), Król (2009), Cantos et al. (2012), Laabsch and Sanner (2012), Velde et al. (2012), Nash et al. (2014), Mizutani et al. (2015), Ozkan et al. (2016a, 2016b), Abbott and Cohen (2017), Huang et al. (2019), Kuriakose and Gupta (2021), Shrivastva (2021), Solina and Abramović (2022), Moyano and Dobruszkes (2025)"
"Weak institutional coordination, incompatibility of national models (governance misalignments, lack of regulatory harmonization across jurisdictions, market integration limitations, system fragmentation)";"EU, Africa, Asia, other countries";2000s–2020s;"Bouf et al. (2005), Pittman (2004, 2005), Velde et al. (2012), Nash et al. (2014), Bošković and Bugarinović (2015), Mizutani et al. (2015), Ozkan et al. (2016a, 2016b), Abbott and Cohen (2017), Huang et al. (2019), Kuriakose and Gupta (2021), Shrivastva (2021), Solina and Abramović (2022)"
"Insufficient independence and weak capacity of regulators (regulatory autonomy deficits, enforcement tool shortages)";"EU, India, Africa, Asia, other countries";2000s–2020s;"Pittman (2004), Król (2009), Nash et al. (2014), Ozkan et al. (2016a, 2016b), Shrivastva (2021)"
"Financial fragility and subsidy dependence of infrastructure firms (low cost recovery, regulatory constraints, investment deterrence, autonomy reduction)";"EU, Africa, Asia, other countries";1990s–2020s;"Velde et al. (2012), Ozkan et al. (2016a), Huang et al. (2019), Kuriakose and Gupta (2021), Solina and Abramović (2022), Moyano and Dobruszkes (2025)"
"Institutional barriers and inertia, resistance to reforms (governance adaptation delays, labor rigidity, legacy agreements, bureaucratic resistance)";"North America, Africa, Asia, other countries";1960s–2020s;"MacDonald and Cavalluzzo (1996), Bouf et al. (2005), Cantos Sánchez et al. (2008), Wetzel (2008), Król (2009), Nash et al. (2014), Mizutani et al. (2015), Ozkan et al. (2016a), Abbott and Cohen (2017), Huang et al. (2019), Kuriakose and Gupta (2021), Shrivastva (2021), Solina and Abramović (2022), Moyano and Dobruszkes (2025)"
"Network fragmentation and inefficient resource allocation (regional grid disconnection, coordination obstacles, planning inefficiencies, scalability limitations)";"North and Latin America, EU, UK, Asia, Africa, other countries";1990s–2020s;"Ellig (2002), Pittman (2004, 2005), Cantos Sánchez et al. (2008), Wetzel (2008), Velde et al. (2012), Bošković and Bugarinović (2015), Mizutani et al. (2015), Ozkan et al. (2016a, 2016b), Abbott and Cohen (2017), Huang et al. (2019),  Kuriakose and Gupta (2021), Solina and Abramović (2022), Moyano and Dobruszkes (2025)"
"Rigid contract and tariff models, problems with pricing (contract complexities, problems with tariff methodologies, short-termism, opaque access terms, cross-subsidies, contestability restrictions)";"North America, EU, other countries";1990s–2020s;"Ellig (2002), Cantos Sánchez et al. (2008), Król (2009), Velde et al. (2012), Bošković and Bugarinović (2015), Ozkan et al. (2016a), Huang et al. (2019), Shrivastva (2021), Solina and Abramović (2022), Moyano and Dobruszkes (2025)"
"Decline in investment incentives, low profitability (sunk costs, policy uncertainty, limited returns, private sector engagement deterrence, incentive mismatch)";"EU, UK, Asia, other countries";1980s–2020s;"Bouf et al. (2005), Pittman (2005), Król (2009), Laabsch and Sanner (2012), Velde et al. (2012), Nash et al. (2014), Mizutani et al. (2015), Ozkan et al. (2016b), Abbott and Cohen (2017), Kuriakose and Gupta (2021), Solina and Abramović (2022)"