"Key issues of reforms";"Regions / countries";"Time period";Research
"Dominance of large companies, limited third-party access to networks (entry barriers, monopolized infrastructure, classic governance bottleneck, lack of access safeguards)";"North and Latin America, EU, Middle East, Asia, other countries";1980s–2020s;"World Bank (1999), Beato and Fuente (2000), Cavaliere (2007), Haase (2008), Talus (2014), Ishwaran et al. (2017), IEA (2019), Demir (2020), Kumar et al. (2020), Diaz (2021), Pereira et al. (2023), Babatunde et al. (2024), Mohammad et al. (2024)"
"Regulatory fragmentation and inflexibility, poor institutional coordination, market inefficiencies (conflicting authority layers, transaction governance undermining, increased enforcement costs, market and price manipulation)";"North and Latin America, EU, Middle East, Asia, other countries";1980s–2020s;"Marston (1997), Jackson (2005), Mulder et al. (2006), Haase (2008), Grätz (2009), Slabá (2009), Reverdy (2010), Ishwaran et al. (2017), Kar and Gupta (2017), IEA (2019), Dodge (2020), Najicha (2021), Diaz (2021), Chow and Rincon-Romero (2022), Romeiro and Amorim (2022), Delalibera et al. (2023), Pereira et al. (2023), Babatunde et al. (2024), Mohammad et al. (2024)"
"Vertical integration, role conflicts between operators and regulators (boundary blurring of control, second-order economizing hindrance, enforcement issues)";"Latin America, EU, North America, Middle East, Africa, Asia, other countries";1980s–2020s;"World Bank (1999), Beato and Fuente (2000), Cavaliere (2007), Haase (2008), Westphal (2014), Ishwaran et al. (2017), Demir (2020), Kumar et al. (2020), Romeiro and Amorim (2022), Delalibera et al. (2023), Babatunde et al. (2024), Mohammad et al. (2024)"
"One-size-fits-all reform models that ignore sectoral and institutional specificity (lack of transaction-specific governance design, misalignment with local institutional environment)";"North and Latin America, EU, Africa, Asia, other countries";1980s–2020s;"World Bank (1999), Mulder et al. (2006), Haase (2008), Brakman et al. (2009), Slabá (2009), Talus (2014), Westphal (2014), Najicha (2021), Chow and Rincon-Romero (2022), Hafner and Luciani (2022), Babatunde et al. (2024), Mohammad et al. (2024)"
"Institutional and regulatory barriers, inflexible contracts, absence of liquid trading hubs, high asset specificity, inflexible, non-transparent and inefficient pricing (increased switching costs, renegotiation hazards due to rigid long-term contracts)";"North and Latin America, EU, Africa, Asia, other countries";1980s–2020s;"Marston (1997), World Bank (1999), Jackson (2005), Grätz (2009), Reverdy (2010), Ishwaran et al. (2017), Kar and Gupta (2017), IEA (2019), Demir (2020), Dodge (2020), Kumar et al. (2020), Najicha (2021), Diaz (2021), Hafner and Luciani (2022), Romeiro and Amorim (2022), Delalibera et al. (2023), Pereira et al. (2023), Babatunde et al. (2024), Mohammad et al. (2024)"
"Infrastructure constraints and fragmentation, insufficient investment incentives, dependency on imports (transaction vulnerabilities due to network bottlenecks, energy security risks)";"North and Latin America, EU, Africa, Asia, other countries";1980s–2020s;"Mulder et al. (2006), Brakman et al. (2009), Grätz (2009), Slabá (2009), Reverdy (2010), Talus (2014), Westphal (2014), Ishwaran et al. (2017), IEA (2019), Demir (2020), Diaz (2021), Chow and Rincon-Romero (2022), Hafner and Luciani (2022), Delalibera et al. (2023), Pereira et al. (2023), Babatunde et al. (2024), Mohammad et al. (2024)"
"Weak reform legitimacy, social and political resistance (public distrust, regional resistance, asymmetric benefit distribution, political hazards)";"Asia, other countries";1990s–2020s;"Jackson (2005), Haase (2008), Najicha (2021), Chow and Rincon-Romero (2022), Babatunde et al. (2024)"
"Lack of regulator independence and tariff transparency (non-autonomous oversight, lack of opacity and credible commitments, high transaction risks)";"Latin America, EU, Asia, other countries";1980s–2020s;"Beato and Fuente (2000), Mulder et al. (2006), Kar and Gupta (2017), IEA (2019), Demir (2020), Kumar et al. (2020), Najicha (2021), Mohammad et al. (2024)"