"Key issues of reforms";"Regions / countries";"Time period";Research
"High market concentration and monopoly dominance (dominance of vertically integrated companies, entry barriers, limited network access, inefficient unbundling, network bottlenecks)";"North and Latin America, EU, UK, Asia, other countries";1970s–2020s;"Schmalensee and Golub (1984), Steen (2003), Capobianco (2005), Joskow (2008), Correljé and De Vries (2008), Weigt (2009), Erdogdu (2010), Grilli (2010), Stagnaro et al. (2020), Santos et al. (2021), Fatras et al. (2022)"
"Insufficient investment incentives and unstable revenues (short-term signals, regulatory uncertainty, revenue volatility, lack of risk hedging instruments)";"North and Latin America, EU, UK, Asia, Africa, other countries";1980s–2020s;"Larsen et al. (2004), Joskow (2006, 2008, 2022), Weigt (2009), Jamasb et al. (2015), Roques and Finon (2017), Bhattacharyya (2019), Dertinger and Hirth (2020), Guerriero (2020), Fatras et al. (2022), Morrison (2022)"
"Coordination failures and system fragmentation (governance misalignments across generation, transmission, and retail, governance fragmentation and imbalance)";"North and Latin America, EU, UK, Asia, other countries";1980s–2020s;"Joskow (2006), Weigt (2009), Roques and Finon (2017), Bansal (2017), Urpelainen et al. (2018), Bhattacharyya (2019), Fatras et al. (2022), Morrison (2022), Pereira et al. (2023)"
"Weak competition, market immaturity (strategic bidding behavior, low player participation, market manipulation)";"North and Latin America, EU, other countries";1980s–2020s;"Borenstein et al. (1999), Woo et al. (2003), Cicchetti et al. (2004), Mirza and Bergland (2016), Zhao and Zhu (2024)"
"Weak or politically dependent regulators, political and regulatory issues (lack of autonomy, political interference, inconsistent enforcement, political resistance)";"North and Latin America, EU, UK, Asia, Africa, other countries";1980s–2020s;"De Almeida and Pinto (2004), Singh (2006), Erdogdu (2010), Pollitt (2012a, 2012b), Jamasb et al. (2015), Rodríguez Padilla (2016), Bansal (2017), Shin and Managi (2017), Bhattacharyya (2019), Guerriero (2020), Santos et al. (2021), Morrison (2022), Pereira et al. (2023)"
"Inefficient and non-transparent pricing and tariff policies; rising costs (price rigidity, cross-subsidies, cost misallocation)";"North America, EU, UK, Asia, other countries";1990s–2020s;"Domah and Pollitt (2005), Grilli (2010), Bansal (2017), Guerriero (2020), Santos et al. (2021), Fatras et al. (2022), Joskow (2022), Zhao and Zhu (2024)"
"Institutional and social barriers (weak institutions, affordability issues, infrastructure gaps, electricity theft, weak payment culture, corruption)";"North and Latin America, EU, UK, Africa, Asia, other countries";1980s–2020s;"Singh (2006), Jamasb et al. (2015), Bansal (2017), Urpelainen et al. (2018), Bhattacharyya (2019), Dertinger and Hirth (2020), Fatras et al. (2022), Joskow (2022), Morrison (2022)"
"Consumer inertia and low engagement (high switching costs, low awareness, limited alternatives)";"North and Latin America, EU, Asia, other countries";1990s–2020s;"Bansal (2017), Shin and Managi (2017), Stagnaro et al. (2020)"
"Market model misfit for new technologies (inflexibility of liberalized models to accommodate intermittent and decentralized sources)";"North and Latin America, EU, Africa, other countries";1990s–2020s;"Roques and Finon (2017), Joskow (2022), Fatras et al. (2022), Morrison (2022), Pereira et al. (2023)"