The average of the target’s GDP growth rate five years before the imposition of sanctions. Source: Author’s calculations based on Hufbauer et al. (2009), Statista (2021), World Integrated Trade Solution (2021), CEICDATA (2021), Country Economy (2021), the CIA World Factbooks 1982–2013, Jewish Virtual Library (2023), Trade in Goods with the U.S.A (2023), United States Census Bureau (2023), Kreutz (2005), Portela (2005), Giumelli et al. (2020), Hörbelt (2017), Macrotrends (2021), External and intra-European Union Trade EC Statistical Yearbooks 1958–2002, EC Directorate-General for Trade (2021), EU Sanctions Map (2021), European External Action Service (2023), and World Bank (2021).